Some hypnotists conceive of suggestions as being a form of communication directed primarily to the subject’s conscious mind, whereas others view suggestion as a means of communicating with the “unconscious” or “subconscious” mind. These concepts were introduced into hypnotism at the end of 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet. The original Victorian pioneers of hypnotism, including Braid and Bernheim, did not employ these concepts but considered hypnotic Milton Erickson, made more use of indirect suggestions, such as metaphors or stories, whose intended meaning may be concealed from the subject’s conscious mind. The concept of subliminal suggestion also depends upon this view of the mind. By contrast, hypnotists who believed that responses to suggestion are primarily mediated by the conscious mind, such as Theodore Barber and Nicholas Spanos tended to make more use of direct verbal suggestions and instructions.

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When Braid first introduced hypnotism, he did not use the term “suggestion” but referred instead to the act of focusing the conscious mind of the subject upon a single dominant idea. Braid’s main therapeutic strategy involved stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different regions of the body. In his later works, however, Braid placed increasing emphasis upon the use of a variety of different verbal and non-verbal forms of suggestion, including the use of “waking suggestion” and self-hypnosis. Subsequently, Hippolyte Bernheim shifted the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis on to the psychological process of verbal suggestion.

Hypnotism can be defined as the induction of a peculiar psychical [i.e., mental] condition which increases the susceptibility to suggestion. Often, it is true, the [hypnotic] sleep that may be induced facilitates suggestion, but it is not the necessary preliminary. It is suggestion that rules hypnotism.

Bernheim’s conception of the primacy of verbal suggestion in hypnotism dominated the subject throughout the twentieth century, leading some authorities to declare him the father of modern hypnotism. Contemporary hypnotism makes use of a wide variety of different forms of suggestion including: direct verbal suggestions, “indirect” verbal suggestions such as requests or insinuations, metaphors and other rhetorical figures of speech, and non-verbal suggestion in the form of mental imagery, voice tonality, and physical manipulation. A distinction is commonly made between suggestions delivered “permissively” or in a more “authoritarian” manner. Some hypnotic suggestions are intended to bring about immediate responses, whereas others (post-hypnotic suggestions) are intended to trigger responses after a delay ranging from a few minutes to many years in some reported cases.

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Hypnosis is normally preceded by a “hypnotic induction” technique. Traditionally this was interpreted as a method of putting the subject into a “hypnotic trance”; however subsequent theorists have viewed it differently, as a means of heightening client expectation, defining their role, focusing attention, etc. There are an enormous variety of different induction techniques used in hypnotism. However, by far the most influential method was the original “eye-fixation” technique. Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the induction used in the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the most widely-used research tool in the field of hypnotism. Braid’s original description of his induction is as follows:

James Braid’s Original Eye-Fixation Hypnotic Induction Method
Take any bright object between the thumb and fore and middle fingers of the left hand; hold it from about eight to fifteen inches from the eyes, at such position above the forehead as may be necessary to produce the greatest possible strain upon the eyes and eyelids, and enable the patient to maintain a steady fixed stare at the object.

The patient must be made to understand that he is to keep the eyes steadily fixed on the object, and the mind riveted on the idea of that one object. It will be observed, that owing to the consensual adjustment of the eyes, the pupils will be at first contracted: they will shortly begin to dilate, and after they have done so to a considerable extent, and have assumed a wavy motion, if the fore and middle fingers of the right hand, extended and a little separated, are carried from the object towards the eyes, most probably the eyelids will close involuntarily, with a vibratory motion. If this is not the case, or the patient allows the eyeballs to move, desire him to begin anew, giving him to understand that he is to allow the eyelids to close when the fingers are again carried towards the eyes, but that the eyeballs must be kept fixed, in the same position, and the mind riveted to the one idea of the object held above the eyes. It will generally be found, that the eyelids close with a vibratory motion, or become spasmodically closed.

Braid himself later acknowledged that the hypnotic induction technique was not necessary in every case and subsequent researchers have generally found that on average it contributes less than previously expected to the effect of hypnotic suggestions. Many variations and alternatives to the original hypnotic induction techniques were subsequently developed. However, exactly 100 years after Braid introduced the method, another expert could still state: “It can be safely stated that nine out of ten hypnotic techniques call for reclining posture, muscular relaxation, and optical fixation followed by eye closure.”

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The earliest definition of hypnosis was given by Braid, who coined the term “hypnotism”, an abbreviation for “neuro-hypnotism”, or nervous sleep, which he opposed to normal sleep, and defined as:

“a peculiar condition of the nervous system, induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye, on one object, not of an exciting nature.”

Braid elaborated upon this brief definition in a later work:

“the real origin and essence of the hypnotic condition, is the induction of a habit of abstraction or mental concentration, in which, as in reverie or spontaneous abstraction, the powers of the mind are so much engrossed with a single idea or train of thought, as, for the nonce, to render the individual unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, all other ideas, impressions, or trains of thought. The hypnotic sleep, therefore, is the very antithesis or opposite mental and physical condition to that which precedes and accompanies common sleep”

Braid therefore defined hypnotism as a state of mental concentration which often led to a form of progressive relaxation termed “nervous sleep”.

A contemporary account of hypnosis, derived from academic psychology, was provided in 2005, when the Society for Psychological Hypnosis, Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA), published the following formal definition:

The American Psychological Association’s Definition of Hypnosis
“Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented. The hypnotic induction is an extended initial suggestion for using one’s imagination, and may contain further elaborations of the introduction. A hypnotic procedure is used to encourage and evaluate responses to suggestions. When using hypnosis, one person (the subject) is guided by another (the hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in subjective experience, alterations in perception, sensation, emotion, thought or behaviour. Persons can also learn self-hypnosis, which is the act of administering hypnotic procedures on one’s own. If the subject responds to hypnotic suggestions, it is generally inferred that hypnosis has been induced. Many believe that hypnotic responses and experiences are characteristic of a hypnotic state. While some think that it is not necessary to use the word “hypnosis” as part of the hypnotic induction, others view it as essential.”

Details of hypnotic procedures and suggestions will differ depending on the goals of the practitioner and the purposes of the clinical or research endeavor. Procedures traditionally involve suggestions to relax, though relaxation is not necessary for hypnosis and a wide variety of suggestions can be used including those to become more alert. Suggestions that permit the extent of hypnosis to be assessed by comparing responses to standardised scales can be used in both clinical and research settings. While the majority of individuals are responsive to at least some suggestions, scores on standardised scales range from high to negligible.

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Hypnosis is a mental state or set of attitudes induced by hypnotic induction, which usually consists of a series of instructions and suggestions, which can either be delivered by a hypnotist, or be self-administered. The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as “hypnotherapy”.

‘Hypnosis’ and ‘hypnotism’ both derive from the term “neuro-hypnotism” coined by the Scottish physician and surgeon James Braid around 1841 to distinguish his theory and practice from “Mesmerism” or “animal magnetism”.

Although a popular misconception is that hypnosis is a form of unconsciousness resembling sleep, contemporary research suggests that it is actually a wakeful state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility, with diminished peripheral awareness. In the first book on the subject, Neurypnology (1843), Braid described “hypnotism” as a state of physical relaxation (”nervous sleep”) accompanied and induced by mental concentration (”abstraction”).

Characteristics
Skeptics point out the difficulty distinguishing between hypnosis and the placebo effect, proposing that the state called hypnosis is so heavily reliant upon the effects of suggestion and belief that it would be hard to imagine how a credible placebo control could ever be devised for a hypnotism study.

However, hypnotism itself originated out of very early placebo controlled experiments, conducted by Braid and others. Many researchers and clinicians would therefore object that hypnotic suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect, e.g., Irving Kirsch has proposed a definition of hypnosis as a “non-deceptive mega-placebo”, i.e., a method which openly makes use of suggestion and employs methods to amplify its effects. It is therefore surprisingly difficult to distinguish between the views of skeptics and proponents regarding hypnotism.

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Thanks to stage shows & television, many people have a bad impression of hypnosis, which is a shame because hypnotherapy is a techniquee that can help many people to make difficult changes to improve their quality of life. Therefore I felt it would be useful to start with the simple truths are about hypnosis.

Self Hypnosis:
Hypnotism is a state of hyper-suggestibility where the conscious mind and the subconscious dissociate. It is a state of consciousness where the hypnotized person can more easily adhere to the Hypnotist’s suggestions.

What many people won’t have realised is that they will have entered a hypnotic state many times in their lives to date. If you’ve ever been moved to tears by a sad tv show or movie, you have entered a state of increased suggestibility where the suggestion of sadness presented on the TV has triggered an emotional &/or physical response. Your ability to reason, which is controlled by your conscious mind, has been bypassed, so you do not rationalise that the events being presented to you are not real, and you respond emotionally as though they are.

Who Can Be Placed Under Hypnosis?
Research has learned that the vast majority of people are susceptible to hypnosis. The exceptions generally are subjects with an I.Q. of less than 70, psychotic personalities and those suffering from senility. Age however is no barrier, and most people can benefit from self hypnosis techniques, so long as they are motivated to do so.

How involved does a subject need to be to benefit?
In most cases, you can be the lightest possible subject and still obtain all of the benefits from self hypnosis. For many years, a great deal of importance has been placed on how deep a subject is, but research has shown that this may not necessarily be the case. With the latest state of the art “NLP” and hypnotic methods, hypnotic depth is one of the least imperative aspects, which contributes to the treatment success.

Are There Any Dangers Associated With Self Hypnosis?
There are on the whole no dangers to practicing self hypnosis. The most “negative” possibility is that the subject may fall in to a relaxed sleep for up to an hour.

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